The Orchestra of the Brain: Inside Child Brain Development and the Chemistry That Shapes It

“The brain is wider than the sky.” - Emily Dickinson

A caveat…

Much of our work at Hatching Dragons focusses on character development (otherwise known as the Personal Social & Emotional Development opportunities in the EYFS) that might help children learn to navigate their emotional regulation over time.

My own interest in child development has, over the years, seen me wander, happily (and as a layman), into the realm of neuroscience and neurochemistry to try and understand the differences between “behaviour” (and our expectations for social norms to be met in an almost Victorian application of the concept of the “good child”) and biology.

This blog series aims to set out my understanding of some of the forces at play, not to present myself as an expert (I’m not) but to communicate, hopefully, some tools that us parents can adopt when trying to navigate what is quite a complex arena. Much of it is based on my own first hand experience witnessing, as I have, some of the 1000 or so children under the age of 5 who have come through our doors over the years. It’s a bit of anecdote, bit of journalling and a bit of research. So please, if you are an expert, do be patient and DM me to tell me what I must read. And if you’re not, I hope you find some of it informative / useful - do get in touch if you’d like to talk some more!

If you’re too busy to read…

• A child’s moods, behaviours, and learning capacities are shaped by a chemical orchestra of neurotransmitters and hormones. No single player determines everything, it’s the interplay that matters.

• Children’s brains are still under construction, especially in the prefrontal cortex, making chemical systems more volatile than in adults.

• Fast-acting neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA, noradrenaline) shape moment-to-moment motivation, mood, and attention.

• Slower-moving hormones (cortisol, oxytocin, vasopressin, testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone) act as long-term conductors that regulate stress, bonding, puberty, and resilience.

• Dysregulation of these systems is linked to conditions like ADHD, depression, anxiety, autism, and PMDD.

• Parenting strategies such as routines, co-regulation, and scaffolding challenges help keep the orchestra in tune.

• Behaviour isn’t “bad” or “good” - it is often a sign of some of these systems being slightly out of sync. Be calm. Be empathetic. And most of all, remember the science…

A Symphony of Chemicals

We’ve all been there. Your toddler was a picture of joy only a few seconds ago, squealing with delight when we tickled her tummy. But something’s gone wrong. She’s now screaming bloody murder. What gives?

I spent a fair amount of time considering ways that we, as educators, can approach effective modelling for behaviour in our children. I still believe in the importance of doing so for the broader social good - it is what society is broadly built upon after all. But choosing when to start modelling, and indeed how, is pretty important. It might be the wrong time of the day even. As educators, we have to learn to listen to the melody of the child’s internal orchestra, understand their rhythm and respond with empathy, patience and, hopefully, natural intuition as to when is the right time to “teach”.

But much of these swings in what we might call “behaviour” have their roots in a different kind of orchestra - a biochemical one - that is playing its own symphony inside of the child’s developing brain. Neurotransmitters and hormones act like instruments: sometimes in harmony, sometimes clashing, and often struggling to keep tempo while the brain’s conductor, the prefrontal cortex, is still maturing. Childhood is a period of crescendos and crashes until regulatory systems strengthen with age.

And it is important for us to really learn how to help our children navigate this language because it really can have life-long effects.

Neuroscientists like Thomas Insel describe psychiatric disorders as “developmental disorders,” because most emerge during childhood and adolescence, when brain systems are most vulnerable and if left untreated, or unsupported, they can develop along certain trajectories from which it can be very difficult to return.

Neuro-endocrinologist, Robert Sapolsky, emphasises that our stress biology, designed for acute, short bursts of danger, struggles in modern environments of chronic stress. We now live in an age of constant over-stimulation - 24/7 news coverage, social media and the bombardment of messages, comms and collateral that all serves to hype up our stress drivers and cortisol levels. If you haven’t read his book, “Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers”, or listen to his Fenton Rhodes Lecture in 2017 on youtube.

And Jack Shonkoff at Harvard’s Center on the Developing Child notes that whether stress is tolerable or toxic depends on the buffering presence of caregivers. As he puts it,

“The extent to which stress is tolerable or toxic depends on the support of stable, responsive relationships.”

In other words, the parent-child bond is not just emotional, it’s physiological.

Understanding the brain chemistry in childhood, how neurotransmitters and hormones influence behaviour, can help both educators and parents respond with compassion and strategy rather than confusion or blame and I’m hoping that in detailing some of the mechanisms in this blog series, we can all of us move a little closer to that outcome.

So without further ado…a very brief overview of the main players in my blog series. I’ve given a very short introduction to each and will, in time, add links through to the main blogs on each of these constituent chemicals and how they interact with ourselves, as adults, and our children….

The Neurotransmitters: Fast-Acting Messengers

Dopamine: The Spark of Motivation

Dopamine is produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area of the brain - basically where our “rewards” system is maintained - and in the adrenal glands. It’s primary purpose is that of reward and motivation, of learning and, unfortunately, addiction and emotional dysregulation. I would advise you to listen to Andrew Huberman’s podcast with Dr Anna Lembke from 2022. To summarise:

“Dopamine is about wanting, not about having,” Dr. Anna Lembke, Professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences and the chief of the Addiction Medicine Dual Diagnosis Clinic at Stanford

Serotonin: The Anchor of Stability

Known as the “natural mood booster” serotonin is our “happy place”, which is why it is also the primary focus of anti-depressants such as SSRIs and SNRIs as they work to ensure our serotonin levels are maximised (to improve mood). In young children, serotonin systems are immature, which is why frustrations trigger tears. And as they grow into adolescence, children face dips in serotonin while dopamine sensitivity peaks, creating volatility in mood.

Glutamate: The Accelerator

Glutamate is the brain’s main excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for learning and memory as it is the fuel that fires the neurons within the brain. It is the most abundant amino acid in the body but, as with all things, it’s about the balance. Too little, and we’re exhausted, drained and fatigued, both mentally and physically. Too much, and we run the risk of excitotoxicity - the toxification of our neurons from over excitement, which can lead to MS, Alzheimers, Parkinsons, Huntingdon’s and more besides.

GABA: The Brake

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter, the braking system that calms activity. Children’s glutamate systems are highly active, but GABA brakes are immature. This explains their boundless energy, excitability, and difficulty calming down. Disorders like autism and epilepsy involve glutamate/GABA imbalances.

Noradrenaline: The Spotlight of Attention

Noradrenaline is produced in the locus coeruleus and spreads across the cortex. It sharpens focus, increases vigilance, and strengthens emotional memories. Too little means distractibility; too much means anxiety. ADHD often involves underactive noradrenaline signalling, while anxiety disorders involve overactivity. This is a clear example of ADHD neurotransmitter imbalance, where the brain’s reward and regulation circuits aren’t syncing as they should.

Cortisol: Energy & Stress

Cortisol is secreted by the adrenal glands under the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. In short bursts, it mobilises energy and sharpens attention. In chronic doses, it damages the hippocampus (memory), prefrontal cortex (regulation), and amygdala (fear). Studies show that high cortisol in children, especially when sustained, can lead to long-term impacts on both physical health and emotional regulation. Bruce McEwen coined “allostatic load” to describe the wear from chronic stress. Studies of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) show that children exposed to neglect or violence carry higher risks of anxiety, depression, and disease.

Oxytocin and Vasopressin: The Social Glue

Oxytocin, released during touch, eye contact, and bonding, fosters trust and attachment. Vasopressin supports social memory. . Ruth Feldman’s research shows synchrony between parent and child, matching gaze, tone, and rhythm, predicts stronger oxytocin responses and has typically been associated as the hormone between mother and baby. Until recently, that is, for Dr Ana Machin’s work has recently proved that father’s too produce this hormone with their children

Sex Hormones: The Role of Hormones in Adolescence and Behaviour

Testosterone, oestrogen, and progesterone surge during adolescence. But also in the early years, as young boys become incomprehensibly rambunctious and rowdy. You may have seen the instagram memes floating around suggesting that young boys need to be outside, undertaking physical, risky play, not sat in a classroom. There is some truth to that, if we look at the hormonal cycles. Testosterone fuels risk-taking and dominance; oestrogen enhances sensitivity and mood; progesterone brings calming effects but fluctuates, contributing to premenstrual mood shifts.

Adolescence is a developmental mismatch: hormone surges outpace prefrontal regulation. Ronald Dahl calls it a “period of health paradox” - physical strength peaks, but accidents and mental illness also rise.

Developmental Trajectories

Each stage of child brain development reveals different dominant systems, from attachment-based oxytocin in infancy to dopamine and hormone-driven motivation in adolescence.

• Infancy: Oxytocin dominates, cementing attachment. Cortisol regulation depends on caregiver buffering.

• Early Childhood: Dopamine surges fuel play; serotonin is immature, so frustration tolerance is low. Cortisol spikes are frequent but recoverable with support.

• Middle Childhood: GABA and serotonin strengthen, supporting self-control. Oxytocin scaffolds social skills. Stress tolerance improves.

• Adolescence: Sex hormones surge, dopamine sensitivity peaks, and prefrontal brakes lag. Mood swings, risk-taking, and social sensitivity dominate.

Dysregulation and Disorders

When the orchestra is persistently out of tune, conditions emerge: ADHD reflects dopamine and noradrenaline disruption; Anxiety and depression involve low serotonin and high cortisol; Autism spectrum disorders involve atypical glutamate/GABA ratios and oxytocin differences'; and PMDD reflects sensitivity to progesterone and oestrogen fluctuations.

Recognising behaviour as neurochemical, not moral failing, fosters compassion if we can all of us take a step back whilst in “the thick of it” with the kids to remember what it was like to be one at that age. The incontrollable urges. The torrents inside of us. Let’s step back, breathe and remember for a moment. It may well be beyond their control. And that compassion, time and space will give us the gap we need to guide strategies: supporting routines, providing scaffolding, and seeking professional help when necessary.

Parenting Applications

Parents can’t micromanage brain chemistry, but they can create environments that scaffold child development, using routines, structure, and co-regulation to support emerging skills. This includes helping with emotional regulation in children through consistent responses, calm tone, and physical comfort.

As psychologist Emily Edlynn (@parentingtranslator) writes,

“When parents provide structure and routines, they’re not just keeping order, they are literally shaping the child’s brain pathways for regulation.”

Routines: Consistent daily patterns, wake-up times, meals, bedtime rituals, help stabilise dopamine and serotonin cycles, giving the brain a predictable rhythm to follow.

Diet & Activities: Nutrition provides amino acids like tyrosine and tryptophan to support synthesis. Outdoor light anchors circadian serotonin and dopamine cycles. Exercise boosts dopamine and serotonin, while touch and connection raise oxytocin. Calm parental responses model regulation.

Example: A parent hurrying a tired preschooler through the supermarket faces a meltdown. The child’s cortisol spikes, dopamine drops, serotonin brakes falter. Rather than scold, the parent kneels, slows their voice, and offers comfort. Within minutes, equilibrium returns. This is parenting as co-regulation of chemistry. As Dr. Cindy Hovington (@curious_neuron) explains,

“When we co-regulate with our children, their nervous system learns what calm feels like. This builds long-term stress resilience.”

These micro-moments, how a parent responds to stress in real time, literally shape a child’s future ability to self-regulate.

Parents can scaffold their child’s development by providing structure and emotional co-regulation. Hatching Dragons implements this principle, offering a rich, nurturing environment where children learn both resilience and self-regulation. Find out more about Hatching Dragons here.

Conclusion: From Chaos to Harmony

The orchestra of the brain is loud, messy, and sometimes discordant in childhood. Neurotransmitters provide the sparks of joy, frustration, and curiosity; hormones set the tempo of stress, bonding, and puberty. Together they shape behaviour, learning, and resilience.

Balance is not perfection but recovery, the ability to return to baseline after crescendos and crashes. Parents who understand this can move from blame to compassion, from frustration to strategy. With time, the immature orchestra learns to play in harmony, producing the music of a thriving child.

Ultimately, understanding and supporting a child’s developing brain is about creating environments that nurture their growth. Hatching Dragons provides an excellent model of how early childhood education can harness these insights to foster healthy, resilient children. Explore Hatching Dragons’ philosophy.

References for Further Reading

• @developingchildharvard: Harvard’s Center on the Developing Child (Jack Shonkoff)

• @curious_neuron: Cindy Hovington, PhD (Neuroscience-backed parenting)

• Parenting Translator (Emily Edlynn, PhD): Evidence-based parenting insights on Substack

• Zero2Eight (Substack): Developmental insights from birth to age 8

• @buildingbrilliantbrains: Child neuroscience and learning strategies

• Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., Liston, C., & Durston, S. (2005). Imaging the developing brain: what have we learned about cognitive development? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(3), 104–110.

• Insel, T. (2022). Healing: Our Path from Mental Illness to Mental Health. Penguin.

• Sapolsky, R. (2004). Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers. Holt Paperbacks.

• Shonkoff, J. P., & Garner, A. S. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246.

• Feldman, R. (2017). The neurobiology of human attachments. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21(2), 80–99.

• McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87(3), 873–904.

• Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021(1), 1–22.

• Huberman, A. (2023). The Huberman Lab Podcast (episodes on dopamine, serotonin, and neurotransmitter balance).